1. I/O (Input/Output) analog/digital

2. Controller (system DCS)

3. HMI (Human Machine Interface)

Penempatan H/W dari DCS dapat tersebar diseluruh plant sehingga disebut sistem yang terdistribusi. Untuk open loop, sinyal (analog/digital) dari field akan diterima module I/O, kemudian sinyal tsb dikirim ke CP (Control Processor) untuk diproses. Hasil proses CP akan ditampilkan di HMI (biasanya berupa PC biasa) Untuk close loop, sinyal (analog/digital) dari field akan diterima module input, kemudian sinyal tsb dikirim ke CP (Control Processor) untuk diproses. CP akan memproses antara value sinyal dari field dengan value setpoint dari operator, hasil proses itu digunakan untuk memberikan nilai ke module output, lalu nilai tsb diolah oleh module output, hasilnya module output akan mengirim sinyal ke device di field (control valve, motor, pump, etc). Semua nilai PV(Process Value/input value), SP(SetPoint) dan MV(Manipulated Value/output value) akan ditampilkan di HMI. DCS juga mempunyai fasilitas trend, trend adalah fasilitas untuk menyimpan nilai yang lampau. Trend juga digunakan untuk tuning parameter PID (Proportional Integrated Derivative) sebuah controller.
untuk lebih detail nya system DCS Dimulai dari Single Loop Controller (electronics, analog) pada jaman dahulu, dimana HMI adalah Controller faceplate yang diletakkan di front plate dari control panel, orang mulai memikirkan untuk menggunakan teknologi computer pada system kontrol.

Dari sini muncullah sebuah multiple loop computerized/digital control system yang disebut sebagai Direct Digital Control (DDC). DDC mengandalkan sebuah computer sebagai main processor dan I/O (masih berupa computer card pada jaman itu) sebagai peripheral, sedangkan computer itu sendiri lengkap dengan perangkat lunaknya juga difungsikan sebagai Operator Workstation (OWS) – untuk operasi dan sekaligus juga sebagai Engineering Workstation (EWS) – untuk konfigurasi. Karena pada jaman itu teknologi digital dan computer belum maju, penggunaan computer untuk sebuah control system tidak begitu reliable sehingga perlu menambhakan redundancy (yang juga tidak reliable). Akibatnya kebanyakan orang tidak berani mempercayakan plant untuk dikontrol menggunakan DDC.

Karena kegagalan DDC, orang memikirkan untuk menggunakan processor (computer) kecil sebagai controller (hanya 8 loop per controller pada awalnya) dan untuk melayani banyak control loop digunakan beberapa controller (computer) kecil-kecil, sehingga pada awal tahun 1970-an muncullah satu system control terdistribusi (masing-masing processor melakukan untuk sejumlah control loop yang tidak terlampau banyak) dan dinamakan Distributed Control System atau DCS. Processor dan I/O dibuat modular dan dihubungkan melalui I/O-Bus; sedangkan processor dihubungkan melalui satu Control Network (umumnya proprietary). OWS dan EWS dilakukan pada Computer (umumnya menggunakan Unix platform pada saat itu) yang terkoneksi pada Control Network. Sampai saat ini DCS sendiri sudah berkembang dengan redundancy pada setiap level, penggunaaan WinNT (atau lebih baru) based OWS dan EWS, dsb.

Sesuai dengan disain awalnya, semakin distributed (berarti semakin sedikit jumlah control loop per controller/processor), semakin handal DCS tersebut (berarti apabila terjadi kegagalan sebuah controller, kita hanya mengalami semakin sedikit kegagalan control loop). Akan tetapi dengan membatasi jumlah loop per controller, biaya akan semakin mahal. Dengan kemajuan teknologi, orang bisa menambah jumlah control loop per controller dengan reliability dan performance yang memadai agar system lebih ekonomis. Seberapa jauh ‘distribution level’ (jumlah control loop per controller) yang bisa diterima, ini adalah hak para Pengguna (Users) yang mendikte ketentuannya.

Perlu kita cermati juga Control System dengan teknologi FOUNDATION Fieldbus(tm) dengan arsitektur FCS (Field Control System) / CIF (Control In the Field) yang secara tipikal mempunyai distribution level 32X lebih distributed dibandingkan DCS.

Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies such as gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion. Incineration may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery. There are many medical queries about air emissions, and local communities still have worries with modern incinerators.

In some countries, incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include a materials separation to remove hazardous, bulky or recyclable materials before combustion. These facilities tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the local environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion process control. Most of these facilities did not generate electricity.

Incinerators reduce the volume of the original waste by 95-96 %, depending upon composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling.^[2] This means that while incineration does not completely replace landfilling, it reduces the necessary volume for disposal significantly.

Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste types in niche areas such as clinical wastes and certain hazardous wastes where pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures. Examples include chemical multi-product plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater streams, which cannot be routed to a conventional wastewater treatment plant.

Modern incinerators still have expert and local community concerns about bioaccumulate fine particulate PM2.5 emissions downwind, metal, trace dioxins and acid gas emissions, climate change CO2 footprints, toxic fly ash and incinerator bottom ash or IBA management as well as waste resource ethics such as valuable resource destruction, low energy efficiency (usually 14-28%) and reducing the incentives and threshold for recycling and waste minimisation activities. Incineration in any form WtE, EfW, or CHP is rejected in the zero waste movement as a viable, sustainable or ethical solution to managing waste resources or energy recovery. Some health and air emissions experts still have their concerns regarding unmonitored fine particulates amounts at specifically PM2.5 emissions level and the effectiveness of electroplate and bag filters. Other technology developers such as those developing plasma arc gasification PGP or anaerobic digestion AD following autoclaving MHT or advanced mechanical biological treatment MBT[ [AMBT]]; claim more advanced and more effective technologies and suggest investment in incineration as a future technology is a wasted investment.

Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan where land is a scarce resource. Denmark and Sweden have been leaders in using the energy generated from incineration for more than a century, in localised combined heat and power facilities supporting district heating schemes.^[3] In 2005, waste incineration produced 4.8 % of the electricity consumption and 13.7 % of the total domestic heat consumption in Denmark.^[4] A number of other European Countries rely heavily on incineration for handling municipal waste, in particular Luxemburg, The Netherlands, Germany and France.

Types of incinerators

An incinerator is a furnace for burning waste. Modern incinerators include pollution mitigation equipment such as flue gas cleaning. There are various types of incinerator plant design: moving grate, fixed grate, rotary-kiln, fluidised bed.

Moving grate

The typical incineration plant for municipal solid waste is a moving grate incinerator. The moving grate enables the movement of waste through the combustion chamber to be optimised to allow a more efficient and complete combustion. A single moving grate boiler can handle up to 35 tonnes of waste per hour, and can operate 8,000 hours per year with only one scheduled stop for inspection and maintenance of about one months duration^[5]. Moving grate incinerators are sometimes referred to as Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators (MSWIs).

The waste is introduced by a waste crane through the “throat” at one end of the grate, from where it moves down over the descending grate to the ash pit in the other end. Here the ash is removed through a water lock.

Part of the combustion air (primary combustion air) is supplied through the grate from below. This air flow also has the purpose of cooling the grate itself. Cooling is important for the mechanical strength of the grate, and many moving grates are also water cooled internally.

Secondary combustion air is supplied into the boiler at high speed through nozzles over the grate. It facilitates complete combustion of the flue gases by introducing turbulence for better mixing and by ensuring a surplus of oxygen. In multiple/stepped hearth incinerators, the secondary combustion air is introduced in a separate chamber downstream the primary combustion chamber.

According to the European Waste Incineration Directive, incineration plants must be designed to ensure that the flue gases reach a temperature of at least 850 °C for 2 seconds in order to ensure proper breakdown of organic toxins. In order to comply with this at all times, it is required to install backup auxiliary burners (often fueled by oil), which are fired into the boiler in case the heating value of the waste becomes too low to reach this temperature alone.

The flue gases are then cooled in the superheaters, where the heat is transferred to steam, heating the steam to typically 400 °C at a pressure of 40 bar for the electricity generation in the turbine. At this point, the flue gas has a temperature of around 200 °C, and is passed to the flue gas cleaning system.

At least in Scandinavia scheduled maintenance is always performed during summer, where the demand for district heating is low. Often incineration plants consist of several separate ‘boiler lines’ (boilers and flue gas treatment plants), so that waste receival can continue at one boiler line while the others are subject to revision.

Fluidized bed

A strong airflow is forced through a sandbed. The air seeps through the sand until a point is reached where the sand particles separate to let the air through and mixing and churning occurs, thus a fluidised bed is created and fuel and waste can now be introduced.

The sand with the pre-treated waste and/or fuel is kept suspended on pumped air currents and takes on a fluid-like character. The bed is thereby violently mixed and agitated keeping small inert particles and air in a fluid-like state. This allows all of the mass of waste, fuel and sand to be fully circulated through the furnace.